The Prose Edda by Snorri Sturlson - Iceland's greatest skald

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The Prose Edda, also known as the Younger Edda, Snorri's Edda (Icelandic: Snorra Edda) or simply Edda, is the most renowned of all works of Scandinavian literature and our most extensive source for Norse mythology.

Written in Iceland a century after the close of the Viking Age, it tells ancient stories of the Norse creation epic and recounts the battles that follow as gods, giants, dwarves and elves struggle for survival.

It also preserves the oral memory of heroes, warrior kings and queens.

In clear prose interspersed with powerful verse, the Edda provides unparalleled insight into the gods' tragic realization that the future holds one final cataclysmic battle, Ragnarok, when the world will be destroyed.

These tales have proved to be among the most influential of all myths and legends, inspiring modern works as diverse as Wagner's Ring Cycle and Tolkien's ‘The Lord of the Rings.’ Together with the Poetic Edda, the Prose Edda comprises the major store of pagan Scandinavian mythology.

The work is often assumed to have been written, or at least compiled, by the Icelandic scholar and historian Snorri Sturluson around the year 1220.

The Four Sections of the Prose Edda

1. Prologue

The prologue of the Prose Edda remains the most controversial of the four books. It was written by Snorri Sturluson, who was a Christian. The prologue of the Prose Edda reduces the Norse gods to fictional stories rather than theological accounts.

In the prologue, Norse gods are referred to as Roman Trojan warriors that fled Troy and settled in Northern Europe.

2. Gylfaginning

Of the four sections, the second section, or Gylfaginning, is ripe with Norse mythologies. If you want a rich account of Norse mythology, many read the Gylfaginning first. It depicts everything from the creation of the world to Ragnarök.

The title of this chapter comes from Gylfi, a king of Sweden, who travels to a palace in Asgard, where he encounters three men named High, Just-As-High, and Third.

During his encounter with the three men, he asks about the many Norse gods, as well as the creation and destruction of the world.

When the stories are complete, Gylfi has immediately transported away from the palace to his land, where he lives, telling the tales of what he encountered to his people.

3. Skáldskaparmál

As a text designed to teach the reader how to write skaldic poetry, the Skáldskaparmál dives deep into the poetry-writing process.

This third section is a conversation between Ægir, the divine personification of the sea, and Bragi, the god of poetry. It takes a deep dive into the Icelandic poet’s language and ways to recreate poetry in this manner properly.

While it’s a lesson in poetry writing, Ægir and Bragi sample from many quotes and passages from old Icelandic prose. It isn’t as rich in Norse theology as Gylfaginning, but essential texts are peppered through this section.

4. Háttatal

While other sections of the Prose Edda are samples of restored Norse poetry, the Háttatal is written entirely by Snorri Sturluson.

Overall, it uses the things learned through the previous section of this book to recreate Scandinavian-style prose.

The Kalevala: the Epic Finnish Poem

The Kalevala

An Epic Poem After Oral Tradition

The Kalevala is the great Finnish epic, which like the Iliad and the Odyssey, grew out of a rich oral tradition with prehistoric roots.

During the first millenium of our era, speakers of Uralic languages (those outside the Indo-European group) who had settled in the Baltic region of Karelia, that straddles the border of eastern Finland and north-west Russia, developed an oral poetry that was to last into the nineteenth century.

This poetry provided the basis of the Kalevala. It was assembled in the 1840s by the Finnish scholar Elias Lönnrot, who took `dictation' from the performance of a folk singer, in much the same way as our great collections from the past, from Homeric poems to medieval songs and epics, have probably been set down.

Published in 1849, it played a central role in the march towards Finnish independence and inspired some of Sibelius's greatest works. This new and exciting translation by poet Keith Bosley, prize-winning translator of the anthology Finnish Folk Poetry: Epic, is the first truly to combine liveliness with accuracy in a way which reflects the richness of the original.

The main characters of the Kalevala

There are quite a few figures in The Kalevala, and it’s important to know a bit about them in order to give the stories more context. Let’s introduce you to a few of them!

Väinämöinen

Often regarded as the main character in The Kalevala, Väinämöinen is a powerful and heroic demigod. More accurately, he is a hybrid of a bard, shaman, and wizard.

If you’re familiar with The Lord of the Rings series, he is frequently compared to the character ‘Gandalf’.

Väinämöinen is a very wise man and has a talent for music. In fact, he sings… magically. Yes, you read that right!

If you come across pictures or paintings of Väinämöinen, you may notice that he is often depicted holding an instrument. This instrument is the kantele, a traditional Finnish harp.

His kantele-playing skills were so breathtaking, that not only would people listen to him play, but animals and other godly beings did as well.

Ilmarinen

Another key figure in The Kalevala is Ilmarinen. Ilmarinen is the god of air and is a master metalworker and blacksmith.

Ilmarinen crafted numerous magical artifacts featured in The Kalevala. The most well-known of these artifacts is Sampo – a very powerful object that essentially creates riches out of thin air.

The Sampo has three sides: the first side would make salt, the second would make grain, and the third would make money.

Sampo makes many appearances throughout The Kalevala, as many of the deities repeatedly try to steal it. Who wouldn’t want limitless riches?

It is also said that Ilmarinen crafted the dome of the sky, which was another one of his greatest creations.

Joukahainen

To put it simply, Joukahainen is the rival of the main character, Väinämöinen. He is a young man with a lot of confidence and believes he is superior to Väinamöinen.

Don’t get the wrong idea – Joukahainen is not a villain. In Finnish mythology, there is no ‘good’ and ‘evil’. It’s more hero vs chaos.

One day, Joukahainen challenged Väinämöinen to a singing battle, which Väinämöinen accepts. Joukahainen ultimately loses to his opponent and is then cast away to a swamp.

Lemminkäinen

Lemminkäinen is known for being a young, attractive lad who is also a great fighter. He is also very close to his mother, who is named Lempi.

One of the myths involving Lemminkäinen is of him drowning in the river of Tuonela. Tuonela is the river that separated the living from the dead, and is often referred to as ‘the underworld’.

However, Lempi would eventually bring her son back to life.

Important gods and goddesses in Finnish Mythology

Ukko: God of weather and thunder. Often compared to Thor in Norse mythology.

Tapio and Mielikki: God and goddess of the forest.

Louhi: The goddess of witchcraft. She lives in the North of Finland.

Ahti and Vellamo: God and goddess of water.

Tuoni: God of the Tuonela (the underworld).

Päivätär and Kuutar: Goddesses of the sun and the moon. They are also sisters.

Creatures in Finnish Mythology

There are also many kinds of creatures featured in Finnish mythology and The Kalevala. Let’s run through them.

Otso: A bear who is the king of the forest. Treated as a divine spirit – bears are very sacred animals in Finland!

Menninkäinen: Gnomes that are nocturnal and live underground.

Näkki: Alluring but nasty water spirit. It’s said that she lives under bridges.

Haltija: An elf-like creature who likes to help people.

Will-o-wisps: Small light spirits which are usually seen hovering over bodies of water such as ponds, or swamps. They appear at night.

Iku-Turso, or Tursas: A very scary sea monster. Resembles an octopus, but can also grow wings.

Hiisi: A demon who dwells deep in the forest. You wouldn’t want to be spotted by one of these!

Keiju: Fairy-like creatures who are very small and beautiful.

What are the myths of The Kalevala?

Now that we’ve learned about the characters and spirits of the Kalevala, we’re now ready to dive into the fascinating legends of this text.

The creation of the world

Ilmitar, a virgin spirit and a goddess of air, descends to rest in calm waters for 700 years. When she awoke, a bird had landed on her lap and laid seven eggs: six made of gold, and one of iron.

The eggs fall from her lap, landing in the water. The eggs shatter beneath her, creating the Earth. The bottom of the shell forms the land, while the top of the shell forms the sky. The white of the egg forms the moon and stars, while the yolk forms the sun.

Väinmöinen eventually crawls out of Ilmitar’s womb and sets forth on his journey. For years he swims across the seas before setting foot on land.

The Sampo

Many of the stories told in The Kalevala revolve around Sampo. Almost everyone is trying to get their hands on it!

Remember the singing battle between Väinämöinen and Joukahainen mentioned earlier? After his defeat, Joukahainen shoots an arrow to Väinämöinen, causing him to fall into the sea.

After several days, Väinämöinen finally washes up on the shores of the dark and terrifying North. This land is ruled by Louhi who is basically the wicked witch of the North.

Louhi nurses the hero back to health, but demands a reward in return. There was only one thing she desired: Sampo.

Ilmarinen, as its creator, is the only one with access to Sampo. Luckily for Louhi, she has an offer for Ilmarinen that he simply couldn’t refuse: one of her daughters.

As a result, Louhi gets Sampo, Ilmarinen gets to marry one of her daughters, and Väinämöinen is free of his debt to Louhi.

Later on in The Kalevala, Väinämöinen, Ilmarinen, and Lemminkäinen all sail to the North to steal Sampo back from Louhi.

Unfortunately, once Väinämöinen acquires the object, it falls and breaks into pieces.